Aras/Caspian Basin; The Aras river, flowing to the east, empties into the Caspian Sea.
Black Sea Basin; Covering a large part of Northern Anatolia, it is the basin that includes Turkey’s longest river Kızılırmak and another important river Yeşilırmak.
Mediterranean Basin; It is the basin that covers the Mediterranean and the Southern Aegean Region, located in the southwest of Turkey.
The Marmara Basin; It is a basin consisting of numerous small rivers located around the Sea of Marmara.
2. Wind Energy
In 1941, the first wind turbine with a capacity of 1,250 kW was installed in Vermont, USA. With the increase in environmental awareness and the spread of sustainability in energy, wind turbines have once again become the agenda. In recent years, our country has made great progress in wind technology, which is rapidly developing in many developed countries, especially in Germany and Spain.
Turkey’s first grid-connected wind power plant is an autoproducer power plant with an installed power of 1.5 MW, established in Çeşme-Germiyan. Another wind power plant is the 7.2 MW Çeşme-Alçatı power plant built in 1998 with the Build Operate Transfer model. Alaçatı power plant was transferred to EÜAŞ after 20 years of operation. The power plant is still operated by the same institution.
Wind energy is the second most used renewable energy source after hydraulic energy. Reaching an installed capacity of 8,832 MW by the end of 2020, Turkish wind energy reached a total installed capacity of 10,607 MW in 2021. Wind power plant installation tenders were held under the name of Renewable Energy Resource Areas (YEKA 1 and 2), with a total of 1,000 MW in Edirne, Kırklareli, Sivas and Eskişehir regions in 2017 and a total of 1,000 MW in Aydın, Muğla, Balıkesir and Çanakkale regions in 2019 by the Ministry of Energy. In addition, the Ministry is planning to hold the YEKA RES-3 competition with a capacity of 850 MW in 2022. According to the said tender, capacity allocations will be realized in 20 connection zones, ranging from 20 MW to 90 MW.
With the Wind Energy Potential Atlas (REPA) of Turkey, which was prepared in 2007, it was determined that there is a wind energy potential of at least 5,000 MW in regions with annual wind speed of 8.5 m/s and above, and at least 48,000 MW in regions above 7 m/s. On average, 10,000 MW of the 48,000 MW potential is in the seas.
Figure 2. Wind Energy Potential Atlas (REPA) of Turkey
(Source: MGM - General Directorate of Meteorology)
In Turkey, which is surrounded by seas on three sides and has a coastline of approximately 3,500 km, particularly the Marmara and Aegean coasts have regular winds. According to the Wind Energy Potential Atlas, the most favorable regions are: Çanakkale, Akhisar, Bandırma, Bozcaada, Antalya, Sinop, Çorlu, Uzunköprü, Bergama, Çiğli, Datça, Bodrum, Çeşme, Siverek and Merzifon.
3. Solar Energy
Solar energy, which is the oldest and most basic energy source known, offers the possibilities of use as hot water in homes, heating, cooling, production of process heat in industry, irrigation in agriculture, drying and cooking. Since it was a very expensive system until 10-15 years ago, it was generally used as heat energy. However, today, with the decrease in costs, it has started to be widely used in electrical energy.
Solar energy potential studies are calculated as the energy of solar radiation per square meter. The calculation of these figures is in the form of annual, monthly, daily averages and averages taken according to sunshine hours. The Solar Energy Potential Atlas (GEPA) of Turkey was created in 2008 by the Ministry of Energy, using the data of sunshine duration and radiation intensity measured in 1966-1982, available in the General Directorate of State Meteorology Affairs (DMİ).
Figure 3. The Solar Energy Potential Atlas (GEPA) of Turkey (Source: ETKB-EİGM)
According to this; it has been determined that Turkey, which has a high solar energy potential due to its geographical location, has an average annual sunshine duration of 2,640 hours (total 7.2 hours per day), and an average total radiation intensity of 1,311 kWh/m²-year (a total of 3.6 kWh/m² per day). In Germany, on the other hand, the solar radiation intensity is considered to be an average of 1,100 kWh per square meter per year. This amount corresponds to approximately 2.9 kWh per square meter per day. Germany, the leading country in solar energy, has the highest irradiation value of 1,200 kWh/m2 per year. This value is almost the same as the radiation value of the Black Sea Region, which is the least irradiated region of Turkey. The irradiance values of Southeastern Anatolia and the Mediterranean Region are over 1,400 kWh/m²-year.
The installed power of the electrical energy acquired from solar energy, which was 40 megawatts in 2014, reached 6,667 MW as of the end of 2020 and 7,815 MW as of the end of 2021.in 2021, the total unlicensed installed capacity was 7,547 MW. Solar power plants accounted for 91.53 percent of this amount (Source: EMRA 2021 Sector Report).
In 2017, the tender for the YEKA-1 solar power plant with a capacity of 1,000 MW, planned to be built in Konya Karapınar, was held. This power plant, which will be built on an area of 20 million square meters, will be the world’s largest solar power plant built on a single parcel. It is planned to be completed in 2023. In 2021, the Ministry planned YEKA-2 SPP competition with a total of 1,000 MW in different provinces, but the said competition was canceled and YEKA-3 SPP tenders were held in the same year. As a result of the competitions held for 36 provinces, the average price was 21.52 TL kuruş/kWh. In the YEKA SPP-4 competitions, a total of 1,000 MW capacity is planned to be allocated for 15 solar power plant projects ranging from 50 to 100 MW. 300 MW of this capacity is located in Bor district of Niğde, 200 MW is located in Erzin district of Hatay and 500 MW is located in Viranşehir district of Şanlıurfa. The 300 MW competition allocated for the Bor district of Niğde was held in April 2022. In the YEKA-5 SPP competition, 1200 MW capacity was allocated for 18 regions. Tenders are planned to be made in 2022.
In addition, in 2021, the first hybrid solar power plant connected to Bingöl Aşağıkaleköy Hydroelectric Power Plant was put into operation. When the solar power plant, the first phase of which was completed at 500 kW level, is completed, it will be the second largest solar power plant after YEKA-GES-1 with an installed capacity of 80 MW.
4. Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is the heat that comes from the sub-surface of the earth. It is contained in the rocks and fluids beneath the earth’s crust. In this context, it is observed that geothermal energy potential is high in regions with fault lines and active or passive volcanoes.
Areas with low (20–70°C) temperatures are used in the industry, primarily in heating, and in the production of chemicals. Medium temperature (70–150°C) and high temperature (higher than 150°C) fields can be used in heating in an integrated manner depending on the reinjection conditions as well as
electricity generation.
Turkey has a very high geothermal potential since it is located on the Alpine-Himalayan belt. The geothermal potential of the country is 31,500 MW.The first geothermal power plant is the 15 MW Denizli-Kızıldere power plant, which came into service in 1984. This is also the second geothermal power plant in Europe after Italy. A power increase has been made at the said power plant and it is still in operation.
Figure 4. The Geothermal Energy Atlas of Turkey (Source: ETKB-EİGM)
The areas that make up the geothermal potential are concentrated in Western Anatolia.In 2020, there were 60 power plants in Aydın, Denizli, Manisa, Çanakkale, Afyon provinces and an installed capacity of 1,613 MW, while the geothermal energy installed capacity by the end of 2021 was 1,676 MW (Source: EMRA 2021 Sector Report).
Turkey is the 1st country in Europe in terms of geothermal potential and the 4th in the world in terms of installed capacity. The top five countries in electricity generation from geothermal energy are: USA, Indonesia, Philippines, Turkey and New Zealand. The top 5 countries in geothermal heating and spa are China, Turkey, Japan, USA, Iceland.
5. Biomass Energy
Turkey is a developing country with its rich agricultural potential and due to this potential, large amounts of agricultural waste originate from agricultural areas.
Biofuels are classified as biodiesel, bioethanol and biogas. With the Petroleum Market Law No. 5015, Biofuels have developed especially after the Special Consumption Tax (ÖTV) exemption was granted to them, provided that they are obtained from domestic raw materials.
Biodiesel is a fuel that can be used in all areas where diesel is used, except for very cold regions. It can be used as a substitute for diesel fuel in the transportation sector, as well as fuel oil in the residential and industrial sectors.
Bioethanol is an alternative fuel, the raw material of which is obtained by fermentation of sugar, starch or cellulose-based agricultural products such as sugar beet, corn, wheat and woody plants and used by blending with gasoline in certain proportions. It is an environmentally friendly alternative to carcinogenic substances. It also reduces exhaust emissions. Corn and wheat are the most suitable raw materials for bioethanol production. To produce 1 liter of bioethanol, 2.5 kg of wheat must be used. Turkey does not have sugar cane, but has the capacity to produce bioethanol from sugar beet and its waste. The most important bioethanol production plant of the country is Konya Şeker AŞ, which was opened in 2007.
In terms of biogas production, there are facilities such as wastewater treatment and biological treatment in the treatment plants of many municipalities. With the regular storage of garbage, power plants that produce electrical energy have been established in the private sector or within the municipalities in Ankara-Mamak and Sincan, İstanbul-Eyüp-Odayeri, Hasdal and in many cities such as Adana, Bursa, İzmit, Mersin, and Tarsus.
Initially, biofuel was used only as heat energy in the country. However, in recent years it has been used as both heat and electrical energy. Cogeneration aplications, which involve the use of heat and electrical energy in the same system, have now become more popular systems. Since cogeneration systems are exempt from licensing in the electricity market, they are widely used by many businesses, shopping malls, hotels, airports and sites.
Biomass Energy Potential Atlas (BEPA) was prepared by the Ministry of Energy. According to BEPA, Turkey’s biomass potential is 8.6 mtoe, and the estimated installed capacity is 20,000 MW. The biogas potential is 2 mtoe, and the estimated installed capacity is 4,500 MW. As of the end of 2021, the installed capacity of biomass including waste heat was 1,644 MW (Source: EMRA 2021 Sector Report).
6. Hydrogen Energy
Hydrogen, which has an odorless, colorless, tasteless and transparent structure, is the lightest element in nature. It has the highest energy per unit of all known fuels. 1 kg of hydrogen has the same energy as 2.1 kg of natural gas or 2.8 kg of petroleum.
The hydrogen energy system, which is one of the most advanced technologies that can provide the world’s increasing energy needs sustainably and without polluting the environment, has no effect that will threaten human and environmental health. Hydrogen, which is obtained from fossil resources such as coal and natural gas, as well as from water and biomass, is considered as an energy carrier rather than an energy source. Hydrogen, which is on average 1.33 times more efficient than petroleum-based fuels, is in the category of renewable energy sources when obtained from water.
Today, most of the studies on hydrogen are directed towards fuel cells and the automotive sector. The chemical industry, especially the petrochemical industry, has the largest user share. It can be used to obtain mechanical energy in gas turbines, internal combustion engines and airplanes as an alternative to fossil fuels. Unlike electrical energy, it can be stored economically. For this reason, power plants using hydrogen can only be commissioned during periods when peak power is needed.
The first study on the use of hydrogen energy in Turkey was the establishment of a facility that produces hydrogen from wind in Bozcaada in 2011. This study, called “Bozcaada Hydrogen Island Project”, started as a pilot-scale facility. Within the scope of the project, the energy needs of some public buildings, particularly the District Governor’s building, are met. The Department of Energy has a goal of injecting 2 to 6 percent low- and zero-carbon hydrogen into the natural gas grid in order to eliminate excessive fossil fuel consumption and reduce emissions. Also, Natural Gas Distribution Companies Association of Turkey (GazBir) initiated the integration of hydrogen with natural gas. This study, which was started with the idea of making natural gas more environmentally friendly by making a mixture of hydrogen up to 5 percent and natural gas up to 95 percent for testing purposes, is aimed to be expanded in the natural gas sector within a short period of time.
Conclusion
Rapid capacity increases in renewable energy can pose a greater risk of outages in case of insufficient investment in grid reliability. For this reason, in parallel with renewable energy sources, it is necessary to focus on investments, especially in transmission. Constant energy production is not possible due to the daily or seasonal variation and intermittent nature of renewable resources such as wind, sun and water. In order to minimize the damages caused by the intermittent energy to the grid, it is essential for TEIAŞ to protect the grid and lines and to make serious investments as soon as possible to increase the renewable capacity.
Since Turkey can use only a small part of its total electricity production capacity due to the hydroelectric potential that it does not/cannot develop, it has to send the water that it can use as energy to the seas every year without converting it into energy. Therefore, it is necessary to make maximum use of the river waters flowing outside the border. Sending the river waters of the Euphrates and Tigris, the two largest river basins, to Iraq and Syria without using them, is a great loss for energy and agriculture sectors.
The capacity mechanisms for natural gas and coal power plants in Turkey, and the incentives and subsidies given for years to increase renewable energy capacity can create great costs for the public. Subsidies should be abolished at some point in order to liberalize the energy market and reduce the expected energy costs with privatizations, and especially to lower electricity prices. As a matter of fact, in the latest energy report for 2021 prepared by the International Energy Agency, it was stated that the subsidies given by the State for Turkey’s energy costs and support mechanisms such as EÜAŞ’s purchase guarantees should be phased out.
Norway, which is among the first in the world in the use of renewable energy sources, is a good example for Turkey to use its potential. Although Norway is among the top ten countries in the world in terms of oil and natural gas resources, and also in their exports, it meets 99 percent of the energy it uses in domestically from hydraulic energy. Since Turkey is also in a region rich in natural resources, it has to use its capacity in this way like Norway.
References
EMRA 2020 Electricity Market Report,
EMRA December 2021 Sector Report,
TEİAŞ 2019 and 2020 Reports,
TSKB 2021 Energy Sector Outlook Report,
Yunus Furuncu, Turkey’s Renewable Energy Sources and WPP and SPP Investments, SETA 2020,
Strategic Plan and Supply Security Strategy Paper of the Ministry of Energy for the years 2019-2023,
Potential and Utilization of Geothermal Resources, Erden O., Gazi University, Energy Policies During the Coronavirus Crisis, SETA 2020,
Grand National Assembly of Turkey-Renewable Energy Studies and Parliamentary Minutes,
Higher Planning Council (YPK) Decision Electricity Energy Market and Supply Security Strategy Paper,
Energy Market Summary Report for the Years 2020-2021, APlus Energy.
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